Suchergebnisse

We investigate the implications of EU non-tariff barriers in the form sanitary and phyto-sanitary (SPS) measures and technical barriers to trade (TBT) on gender relations in the agricultural labour market between 1995 and 2012. Our results indicate that women are disproportionately disadvantaged in the agricultural sector not only because of the inimical effect of the non-tariff measure, but more so because of their unequal access to opportunities such as gender inequality in secondary schooling the heavy burden of reproduction actives which makes them less available for gainful employment. However, gender parity achieved in primary education and increased access to time saving infrastructure increases their share of employment in the agricultural sector. Thus, proactive measures aimed at infrastructure investment that reduces women care burdens and building the educational capacity of women to effectively deal with such non-tariff barriers, could work to remove these gender specific obstacles, enable women respond to employment opportunities and minimise any gender disparity caused by trade.

AbstractIn many developing countries, women constitute the bulk of agricultural sector's workers and might be susceptible to job loss or gain in the presence of regulations among which are food safety regulations. Thus, this study investigates the gender implications of EU food safety regulations on agricultural labour market between 1995 and 2012 using a panel data of 90 developing countries. In addition, it also investigates how the existing gender-specific obstacles and opportunities affect women's ability to engage effectively in the agricultural sector and benefit from such regulations. Our results show that in many of the countries considered, women are disproportionately disadvantaged in the agricultural sector not only because of the effect of the food regulations but also because of their unequal access to opportunities such as gender inequality in both secondary and tertiary schooling as well as low quality of time-saving infrastructure which make them less available for gainful employment. However, the near gender parity achieved in primary education increases their agricultural employment share. Thus, investment in infrastructure that reduces women care burden, and building the educational capacity of women could work to remove these gender-specific obstacles and enable women to respond to employment opportunities.

Empirical studies have shown that trade agreements have different effects on countries based on their level of development, especially in trade potentials. There have been several trade agreements between North-South and South-South countries, which are accompanied with different outcomes based on output, macroeconomic stability and compliance with the agreements reached. This study evaluates the effects of Africa's trade agreements with the European Union (EU) and China on Africa's exports. This study found that trade agreements in both trade relations have not brought any significant increment to Africa's exports and that more market access conditions exist in South markets than in the North markets.

AbstractOver the years, there have been a significant number of Africa's food exports rejected at the European Union (EU) borders due to their non-compliance with EU food safety standards. This paper, therefore, provides an in-depth investigation of the potential causes of the non-compliance of Africa's food exports to EU food standards and the subsequent rejection of such food exports at its borders. We contribute to the literature by investigating the roles played by trade facilitation measures and institutions in food export rejections and also exclusively provide a more detailed analysis and specific evidence at the product level. Our results indicate that poor trade facilitation measures, particularly inefficient border and food logistics procedures in African countries, increase the incidence of food rejection at the EU border and add to Africa's challenges in accessing EU markets. Thus, non-compliance with EU food safety standards can be addressed by African governments through the strengthening of their domestic institutions and trade facilitation measures, with policies that improve logistics and border procedures as well as measures that align their food standards to international ones. This will ensure an efficient food supply chain that meets international food safety standards and facilitates food trade.

This paper examines the impact of two European Union (EU) market access regulations in the food sector presumed to simultaneously affect firms' decisions to export food products to the EU. We analysed EU pesticide standards on African exports alongside a complementary non-tariff measure in the form of a minimum entry price regulation, which aims to protect EU growers of certain fruits and vegetables against international competition. Analysis was based on Africa's exports of tomatoes, oranges, and lime and lemon to the EU between 2008 and 2013, using the gravity model of trade. Our results show that EU market access conditions constitute significant barrier to the formation of new trade relation between the EU and Africa. In addition, initiation of trade relationships is contingent not only on market access conditions but also on domestic market constraints in Africa. These results imply that negotiating preferential entry prices duties and the removal of domestic market restraints as well as strengthening domestic capacity to comply with EU standards to enhance continuous market access for the continent could stimulate food trade along the extensive margin.

Non-tariff measures such as food safety standards are aimed at protecting consumers' health but may also be used as protectionism tool to limit imports. This study investigates the protectionist intent of EU food safety standards using a sample of EU food imports from African countries. We formalized protectionism by comparing EU standards to the internationally scientific benchmarks. Our results support the hypothesis that heavily import dependent sectors are less protected. Further analysis shows no substantial rise in the usage of these measures as protectionism tool during the period of financial crisis.

The issues of zero trade observations and the validity of the log linear transformation of the gravity equation have generated a number of debates in the literature with differing claims about the most suitable estimation technique. To produce unbiased and consistent estimates for policy making, we undertake a careful comparison of a number of widely used estimators to investigate if EU fish standards are protectionist following reoccurring rejection of African fish products at the EU border. Analysis was based on a dataset of Africa's fish exports to the European Union between 2007 and 2012, which contains about 63% zero trade observations. Our results from the robustness checks are in favour of only the Multinomial Poisson Maximum Likelihood (MPML) technique as the most consistent estimator in relation to the impacts of standards and other explanatory variables. In addition, we find EU standards are indeed non-protectionist in spite of the high level of African fish exports rejected since 2008 at the EU border. Thus, a deeper trade agreement between these trading partners involving a significant transfer in science and technology to the Africa could help improve their compliance rate to EU standards and ensure increased export penetration.

This paper investigates the causes of rejections of African exports at the EU border as a barrier in accessing EU markets. Our results indicate that natural geographical hurdle, poor trade-related infrastructure, inefficient border procedure and a lack of technical personnel increase the incidences of rejection at the EU border and add to Africa's challenges in accessing EU markets. In addition, in line with the growing literature, this study finds empirical support for the proposition that institutions, infrastructure and logistic quality matter for increased market penetration and continuous integration into the global trading system. Thus, the barrier created by EU rejection of Africa's exports can be addressed through the strengthening of African's institutions and trade facilitation measures particularly her custom and border management including transit regimes.

We examine the impact of two important non-tariff measures presumed to simultaneously affect firms' decisions to export to the European Union (EU). As a novelty to the literature, we analyse the impacts of EU pesticide standards on African exports alongside a complementary non-tariff measure in the form of a minimum entry price control measure which aims to protect EU growers of certain fruits and vegetables against international competition. We represent these trade costs in the context of a Melitz firm heterogeneity framework using Helpman, Melitz and Rubenstein (2008) method. Analysis was based on Africa's exports of tomatoes to the EU from 2008 to 2013, using the gravity model of trade. Our results show that at both the extensive and intensive margins of trade, the high stringency of EU pesticide standard prevents new entry into the EU market, drives less productive firms away, and discourages existing exporters from expanding their market base. Furthermore, we find the EU entry price system acts like an export tax, inhibiting tomatoes export to the EU, but only at the intensive margin.